INTRODUCTION TO 





NGLISH HISTORY 





Copyright U?. 



COPHRIGHT DEPOSm 



INTRODUCTION TO 
ENGLISH HISTORY 



By 

John L. Sanford 



"ut rem ita comprehenderem" Cic. 



.S3 



Copyright, 1917 

BY 

John L. Sanford 



• 

JUN 25 1917 



PRESS OF MEYER ftTHALHEIMER 
BALTIMORE, MD. 



CI.A4B7587 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 



HISTORY is an authentic and systematic record of 
events in the career of a nation or community. 

In its strict sense it contains the five elements of (1) 
authenticity; (2) a scheme, or philosophical system, of 
statement; (3) a narration of matters of public and gen- 
eral interest; (4) a narration of past events; (5) a re- 
corded (written) statement. 

The word is often used in a broader sense when one, or 
more, of the above elements may be lacking, or as synony- 
mous with "narrative." 

Protohistoric is a term sometimes used to denote those 
matters relating to the beginnings of historical records, 
that is, when such records have not put on an authentic 
shape or their meanings are clouded in the obscurity of 
the long distant past. 

Prehistoric denotes those matters relating to a period 
antedating history and for an account of which we have 
no written records. 

CHRONOLOGY is a system for the arrangement of 
events according to their relative happening, or sequence, 
as to time. 

The chronological system we use is based upon the 
Birth of Christ, Time before that event is reckoned 
backward and is denoted by the abbreviation B. C. (Before 
Christ) and time subsequent is designated by the abbrevi- 
ation A. D. (Anno Domini, in the Year of Our Lord). It 
was first introduced by a Roman monk, Dionysius Exiguus, 
about the year 533 A. D. He fixed the Birth of Christ 



4 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

in the year 754 of the Roman Era, but began the year 1 
with the Annunciation (March 25) of the preceding year. 
It is now believed that he made a mistake in calculating 
the year so that the Birth of Christ took place four years 
earlier. There is a difference of opinion as to this and 
some claim that Jesus was born in the year 3 B. C, others, 
in 4 B. C, while still others assert that He was born in 

5 B. C. 

The time from the Birth of Christ is called the Christian 
Era. 

The Gregorian Calendar came into use in England in 
1752 A. D.. and it is necessary to say something of this 
system of dividing time into years, months, days, etc., as 
well as of the time for beginning the year, since in his- 
torical reading it is well to understand that different 
methods existed just as there have been different chrono- 
logical systems. Julius Caesar introduced (46 B. C.) that 
system of dividing time which is known as the Julian 
Calendar. This system continued in general use through- 
out Europe until it was found that the true time of the 
commencement of the equinoxes did not correspond with 
the calendar, so that the difference in the sixteenth cen- 
tury amounted to about ten days. To correct this error 
Pope Gregory XIII assembled certain learned men who 
formed a plan for the amendment of the existing system 
of computation, and in the year 1582 A. D. it was for- 
mally promulgated by the Pope. Dates under the Julian 
Calendar are sometimes designated as 0. S., meaning old 
style, while those under the Gregorian Calendar are desig- 
nated by the abbreviation N. S., or new style, to dis- 
tinguish them from the former when occasion requires. 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 5 

In England the Gregorian Calendar was not adopted 
until the year 1751, when, by a statute of that year (Stat- 
ute 24 George II, Chap. 23), it was provided that, in the 
year 1752, the day following the second day of Septem- 
ber should be called the fourteenth day of September, in 
other words that eleven days should be dropped from the 
calendar of that year, since by that time the discrepancy 
of the Julian Calendar from true time amounted to this 
number of days. 

This statute made another important change. In En- 
gland, prior to 1752, the legal and ecclesiastical year com- 
menced on the 25 March, although the popular reckoning 
was January 1. It was now enacted (by the above-men- 
tioned statute) that the legal year should begin on Janu- 
ary 1, and that this change should commence on the first 
day of January following the last day of December, 1751, 
that is January which would have been known as Janu- 
ary, 1751, should be called January, 1752. For some time 
thereafter it was usual to give two dates for an occur- 
rence between the first day of January and the twenty- 
fifth day of March, thus : March, 1752-53 ; February, 1753- 
54; January, 1758-59. 

The system of dating a year by the sovereign's reign 
is still used in English statutes, as shown above, and, in 
this connection, it is well to remember that a statute may 
be of the one or the other of two calendar years in which 
the year of the reign may be unless the accession takes 
place on January 1, when, necessarily, the year of the 
reign synchronizes with the calendar year. 

History is usually divided into the three great epochs — 
Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern. 



6 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

Ancient History extends from the earliest times to the 
downfall of the Western Roman Empire (476 A. D.). 

Mediaeval History (that is, History of the Middle Ages) 
extends from the downfall of the Western Roman Em- 
pire (476 A. D.) to modern times, which different his- 
torians fix at different dates as : at the fall of Constan- 
tinople and the Eastern Roman Empire (1453 A. D.) ; at 
the discovery of America (1492 A. D.) ; at the Reforma- 
tion (1517-1520 A. D.). It covers a period of about a 
thousand years. 

Modern History extends from the ending of the Middle 
Ages to the present times. 

As these divisions are arbitrary as to the exact time 
and typify certain great changes in civilization the periods 
may be classified as follows : 

Ancient History (from the earliest times of historical 
record to the year 500 A. D.) 

Mediaeval History (from 500 A. D. to 1500 A. D.). 

Modern History (from 1500 A. D. to and including the 
present times.) 

Some, however, divide history into two great divisions — 
Ancient and Modern — and treat Mediaeval History as be- 
longing to the latter. 

These define Ancient History to be the history of those 
times prior to the downfall of the Western Roman Em- 
pire and Modern History to extend from that date (476 
A. D.) to the present. 

The Dark Ages is a term applied to the eclipse of learn- 
ing in Europe, or from the coming of the barbarian 
hordes against Rome to the Italian Renaissance, that is 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 7 

from about the beginning of the fifth century to the 
thirteenth century. 

DERIVATION OF NAMES. It may be well to give 
at this point certain data regarding the names of the 
constituent parts of Great Britain. 

Great Britain is a term used to denote England, Scot- 
land and Wales and also, in a generic sense, the British 
Empire. 

The etymology of the word is unknown. The old chroni- 
clers give an account, considered to be purely mythical, 
of the conquest of Britain by Brutus, from whom the 
island took its name. This Brutus was the great grand- 
son of Aeneas and, being driven from Italy, went to Troy, 
whence, with a band of followers there collected, he came 
to Britain and defeated a race of giants living in the 
land. 

The AVelsh Bards state that it was called the Island of 
Bryt, or Prydain, and it is from this last word that some 
think the name is derived. Others attribute the name to 
the Celtic word "brit,' meaning painted, because the 
ancient Britons were in the habit of painting their bodies. 
Still others derive the name from the Punic "brt-ank,' 
meaning "the land of tin,' and some late scholars as- 
cribe to it a Germanic origin. In the old writings it is 
called Breten, Breoten and names of a similar sound. 

As the lower part of the island became united into a 
kingdom, known as England, under Egbert (827 A. D.), 
and the Picts and Scots of the north formed the kingdom 
of Scotland under Kenneth McAlpin (middle of the ninth 
century), the name of Britain was only used in a his- 



8 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

torical sense until the time of King James I, who, as 
King James VI of Scotland, united the crowns of the 
two kingdoms in himself. Although James wished to 
adopt the title "King of Great Britain," the Parliament 
demurred and refused to sanction its use. When, how- 
ever, the Act of Union became effective on May 1, 1707, 
the kingdoms of England and Scotland were united un- 
der the name of Great Britain and Anne was styled 
'Queen of Great Britain, France and Ireland." Upon 
the passage of the Act of Union with Ireland, which be- 
came effective January 1, 1801, the name became the 
'United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." 

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland be- 
came an empire officially when, in the year 1876, Queen 
Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India. The title 
of King George V is "George V, by the Grace of GOD, of 
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of 
the British Dominions Beyond the Seas, King, Defender 
of the Faith, Emperor of India." 

While the term Briton may be used to denote an in- 
habitant of Britain, yet it is generally used to designate 
those older Celtic inhabitants described by Caesar and 
afterward conquered by the Anglo-Saxon tribes. 

Albion was the name given to the island in ancient 
times and was so called from the white cliffs -of the En- 
glish Channel which resembled "mountains covered with 
snow" and known in Celtic as "alpen" or "alp.' 

ENGLAND is the name of the southern part of the 
island of Great Britain and is sometimes used to include 
that portion more particularly known as Wales. 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 9 

It means the land of the Angeln, or Angles, that is 
the land of the people who formerly dwelt in that dis- 
trict of Schleswig known as "Angul." 

The word "angul," or "angel" (cognate with the 
English word "angle"), meant in Anglo-Saxon a hook, 
or fish-hook, the Aryan root of the word being "ank,' 
meaning "to bend," and so it is supposed that the tribe 
or people living in that portion of Schleswig derived their 
name from the shape of that particular district. Bede 
speaks of it as "ilia patria quae Angulus dicitur." 

The name "England" was first used to designate the 
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of the Heptarchy in the time of 
Egbert (827 A. D.) when he united them into one king- 
dom, or, at least, under one sway. It is asserted that this 
king issued a royal decree proclaiming the name of En- 
gland for the country, and the name of English for the 
inhabitants and for the language. It remained, however, 
for the Danes and for the Normans (particularly the lat- 
ter) to unite with the Anglo-Saxons before the final for- 
mation of that kingdom and of that people, we now know 
as England and the English, took place 

The word "Saxon" is the name of the second of those 
tribes which, coming from the shores of the North Sea in 
the district of Holstein, followed the Jutes in their de- 
scent on Britain. The name is derived from "sax,' 
"saex" or "seax," meaning a knife, or short sword, so 
that Saxon would mean the wearer of a short sword. 

The term Anglo-Saxon is used to denote all those tribes 
of Jutes, Saxons and Angles which came to Britain in 
the fifth and sixth centuries. They came from neighbor- 
ing districts, were of the same stock and spoke different 



10 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

dialects of the same language, and so, under this name, 
they are regarded as one people settling in Britain. 

There is some dispute as to whether Anglo (Angle) in 
the compound word "Anglo-Saxon' is to be considered 
in a substantive sense or whether it is to be treated as 
an adjective to distinguish the English Saxon from the 
Old Saxon who remained in his German home. 

Wales is the name for that portion of England which 
forms a great peninsula on the western coast. It is an 
administrative division of England and has been united 
to it since the time of Edward I, who made it into a 
principality by creating his young son (afterward Ed- 
ward II) Prince of Wales. 

The name of Welsh was given to the inhabitants of the 
country in early times by the Anglo-Saxons. The word 
means foreigners and was applied to those Celts whom 
they found living there as well as to those Britons whom 
they forced to flee to this portion of the island. 

Scotland is the northern portion of the island of Great 
Britain. It means the land of the Scottas, or Scotti. The 
etymology of this word is obscure. Until the reign of 
King Alfred, the word Scottas was used to denote the 
people of Ireland, who were a Gaelic branch of the 
Celtic race. They established a settlement in Argyll in 
the sixth century and gradually extended over the coun- 
try then occupied by the Picts, as the inhabitants of 
Caledonia were known. 

Finally the two races were joined in the kingship of 
Kenneth McAlpin and from that time (middle of the 
ninth century) the -northern part of Great Britain was 
known as Scotland. 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 11 

The name of Caledonia was given by the Romans to the 
most northerly part of Great Britain and, more particu- 
larly, to the most northerly province, or division, of the 
island by them. It corresponded to what is now known 
as the Highlands. The use of the word "Caledonia' to 
designate Scotland is now archaic, although sometimes 
found in poetry. 

That portion of Scotland lying north of the River Forth 
is known as the Highlands, while that south is known as 
the Lowlands. 

Topographical and racial conditions have made this 
natural division of the country a potent factor in its 
history. 

Ireland was first known as Ierne, Iernia and Hibernia 
by the Romans, and the etymology of its name, like its 
ancient history, is obscure and involved in myth. Henry 
II, always desirous of securing new dominions, sent over 
certain of his followers to Ireland in the year 1169 A. D., 
and from that date its history impinges upon that of 
England. 

That portion of the country dominated by the English 
(in the eastern part of the island about Dublin and which, 
from time to time, varied in extent) was called the 
"Pale,' so that the remainder of the country was said 
to be "beyond the Pale," and was under the dominion of 
various chieftains who were more or less hostile to the 
English. 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE is the direct result of 
the combination of Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French sub- 
sequent to the Norman Conquest. 



12 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

The Jutes, the Saxons and the Angles were closely 
allied tribes dwelling in the northern part of Germany 
and in Denmark who spoke different dialects of the same 
language, which belonged to the Low German division 
of the southern, or German, branch of the Teutonic 
family of Aryan languages. The exact locations of the 
former homes of these tribes are difficult to determine. 
Some historians make them proceed from the territory 
now known as Friesland, while others contend that what 
is now known as Denmark comprehended all the districts 
of these tribes. 

The weight of authority would seem to place them as 
follows : the Jutes in the middle and the whole, or a por- 
tion, of the northerly part of Denmark ; the Angles in the 
district known as Schleswick; the Saxons in the district 
of Holstein. It is also contended that the dialect of the 
Jute was more closely connected with the Saxon (Old 
Saxon) dialect than was that of the Angle and would 
denote that the Jutes dwelt between the lands of the 
Angles and the Saxons instead of north of the former 
and that the original dialect of the Angle was more close- 
ly allied to the Scandinavian than it was to that of the 
Saxons. But these hypotheses merely show the difficulty 
of exactly locating the former homes of the three prin- 
cipal tribes which formed the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. 

When these tribes invaded Britain (449-588 A. D.) they 
found the Celtic language and the Latin, the former as 
the popular, the latter as the polite and learned tongue 
which had ben imported by the Romans during their occu- 
pation of the island and which was chiefly confined to 
the towns. As the Anglo-Saxon tribes were of the same 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 13 

race and had the same customs and manners, and as the 
difference in their speech was merely dialectical, it was 
natural that they should assimilate, while the common 
enmity of the Celt against them would prevent any ap- 
preciable influence by the Celtic tongue. So it is sup- 
posed that the Celtic and the Latin of this period had 
little or no influence on the fusion of those Anglo-Saxon 
dialects which was taking place. 

Latin was again introduced in Britain when Pope 
Gregory I (the Great) sent Saint Augustine to convert 
the Anglo-Saxons and to establish the authority of the 
Roman See. Augustine, with his thirty-nine companions, 
landed at Thanet in the early part of the year 597 A. D., 
but the Latin Language was confined to the learned and 
had little influence on the rapidly developing Anglo- 
Saxon speech. 

The next language which was brought in contact with 
it was that of the Vikings of Scandinavia and Denmark. 
These Vikings were the inhabitants of Scandinavia and, 
coming from the coasts of Norway and Sweden, had taken 
possession of the former northerly holdings of the Anglo- 
Saxon tribes in Denmark after the latter had emigrated 
to Britain. It is possible that some of these Vikings were 
a part of the original tribe of Jutes who had remained in 
Denmark and had become affiliated with the Norse and 
Swedish tribes. 

The name " Vikings" was given generally to those 
bands of hardy freebooters from Scandinavia and Den- 
mark who began their incursions upon the northern and 
western shores of Europe and upon England early in the 
ninth century. They were called Danes in England and 



14 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

Norsemen, or Northmen, in France and Europe gener- 
ally. The name Normandy marks their acquisition of ter- 
ritory in northern France, while the old term of "Dane- 
lagh" marked for many years that portion of eastern 
England held by them from the Peace of Wedmore (878 
A. D.) until the Norman Conquest. This term of "viking' 
is derived from the word "vik,' meaning a creek or 
small bay, so that "vikingr, " or "viking," would mean 
a frequenter of creeks, and applied to every member of 
these piratical hordes. The term "sea-king" is not the 
translation of the word "viking," for the former denotes 
the leader, or chief, of such a band, so that while a Scan- 
dinavian sea-king was a viking, the latter name would 
apply to each of his wild followers. They spoke a lan- 
guage known as Old Danish, which belonged to the north- 
ern, or Scandinavian, branch of the Teutonic family of 
Aryan languages. Their incursions, their settlement in 
the Danelagh (also written Danelaw), the rule of the 
Danish kings — Canute, Harold and Hardicanute — brought 
their language in close contact with the Anglo-Saxon, 
but while it may have had some effect upon the latter 
yet this effect was not a very pronounced one. From 
the time of the Battle of Hastings (1066 A. D.) until 
about 1250 A. D., Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French were 
spoken side by side, the Norman disdaining the vernacu- 
lar of the Saxons. The Norman-French tongue was, in 
effect, the colloquial and colonial Latin of Gaul adopted 
by the Northmen upon their acquisition and colonization 
of that portion of France which has since borne their 
name. As time went on, however, the Anglo-Saxons and 
Normans were drawn closer and closer, the feelings of 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 15 

animosity disappeared and there grew up a speech known 
and spoken by both. The amalgamation of the two races 
is said to have taken place in the reign of Henry II (1154- 
1189). This was the beginning of the English speech of 
today, and although it may be regarded as the direct 
development of the Anglo-Saxon, yet, during the great 
transition period from 1066 A. D. to 1350 A. D., the lat- 
ter was so altered as to appear at the end of that time 
as a distinct language. There are two great differences 
between the two tongues. The first in point of impor- 
tance as well as in point of time took place between 1150 
A. D. and 1250 A. D. and consisted in the loss of inflec- 
tions. Anglo-Saxon was an inflected, or synthetic, lan- 
guage, while English is not an inflected language but 
an analytic one. The second great difference took place 
between 1250 A. D. and 1350 A. D. and consisted in the 
vast increase in the vocabulary of the English and its 
greater pliability by reason of the introduction of the 
rich store of Latin words through the medium of the 
Norman-French. The great influence of the Norman- 
French can thus be seen in these two vast changes, so it 
may here be noted that while some call the Anglo-Saxon 
period Old English, others give this name to the period 
between 1250 A. D. and 1350 A. D. 

A potent factor in the union of the two languages, 
Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French, was the continued op- 
pression of the Crown, which bore heavily upon both 
peoples and created a common spirit of nationality. 
Opposition to this oppression culminated in the meeting 
of the Barons with King John at Runnymede and the 
signing of the Magna Charta on June 15, 1215, so that 



16 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

this date has almost as much significance in literature as 
it has in history. 

From the very nature of the case exact dates of tran- 
sitions in the language from one stage of development to 
another cannot be given. There is diversity of opinion 
not only as to these but also as to the nomenclature of 
the divisions showing the different stages. Thus the 
name of Old Saxon is generally given to those of the 
Saxons who remained on the Continent to distinguish 
them from their brethren who came to Britain at the 
time of the Anglo-Saxon invasion. And this name ap- 
plies to the language which the Old Saxons used. But 
some use this term to apply to the Anglo-Saxon period 
(449 A. D. to 1066 A. D.), while others call it the Old 
English. 

A concise expression of the derivation of English may 
be thus given : the English language is the direct de- 
scendant of the Anglo-Saxon in combination with the 
Norman-French. 

English literature, as distinguished from Anglo-Saxon 
and Norman-French, may be said to date from the time 
of Chaucer (1340-1400), since which time there has been 
a steady growth and, by reason of its inherent strength 
and beauty as well as by many other wonderful proper- 
ties, it has become the classic language known as Modern 
English. 

Caxton (about 1422-1491), by the introduction of print- 
ing into England in the year 1477, advanced the cause of 
the language by fixing grammatical form and orthogra- 
phy, since, by means of this art, the syntax and orthog- 
raphy naturally became more uniform and were less liable 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 17 

to changes and alterations due to the mistakes or to the 
dialectical differences of various transcribers. 

Shakespeare (1564-1616), by his genius and industry 
and through the great medium of the drama, did much 
to mould the form of the language. But the greatest in- 
fluence exerted for the welfare of the English and for 
the establishment of a classic style was the translation 
of the Holy Bible (commenced in 1604, and printed in 
1611) known as the authorized, or King James, version. 

The official recognition of the language did not keep 
exact pace with its literary growth, although one of the 
earliest specimens of English, or Old English, is the 
Proclamation of Henry III to the people of Hunting- 
donshire in the year 1258 A. D. 

In 1362 A. D. (36 Edward III, Chap. 15), it was en- 
acted that pleas in the courts should be made in English 
and enrolled in Latin. 

In 1731 A. D. (4 George II, Chap. 26), it was ordered 
that on and after 25 March, 1733, "all Proceedings what- 
soever in any Courts of Justice in that Part of Great 
Britain called England, and in the Court of Exchequer 
in Scotland, and which concern the Law and Administra- 
tion of Justice, shall be in the English Tongue and Lan- 
guage only and not in Latin or French, or any other 
Tongue or Language whatsoever." 

The above Act was extended to the Principality of 
Wales in the year 1733 A. D. by the Statute of 4 George 
II, Chap. 26, sec. 3. 

From the above remarks it will be seen that there are 
two ways to regard the growth and development of the 
English language. 



18 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

If we consider it as the natural development and 
growth of the speech of the Anglo-Saxon tribes (although 
materially altered by outside influences during the period 
from 1066 to 1350), and that the language has retained 
the inherent qualities of the earlier times notwithstand- 
ing the outside influences, we may view the matter from 
a historical standpoint and may regard the history of the 
language as coincident with the history of the Anglo- 
Saxons who began the English nation of today when they 
first landed in 449 A. D. 

On the other hand, it may be thought that the changes 
wrought were so material, and t*he Norman-French and 
other influences so vital and so strong, as to produce a 
distinct language. This may be considered a linguistic 
or literary view. The question narrows itself down as to 
whether the degree of dissimilarity is such as will sus- 
tain the distinction or not. But we may agree that there 
can be no doubt that English is the direct descendant of 
the Anglo-Saxon; that it met with great and radical 
changes in the transition period, during which time it com- 
bined with the Norman-French; that we now possess a 
language that differes materially from its predecessor. 

A further discussion of this subject belongs to the his- 
tory of literature and of the English language. 

As stated above, there are various classifications, or 
divisions, of the periods of growth and development of 
the language, and it will be found that authorities vary 
greatly in their nomenclature of the periods, so that it 
is often confusing. Frequently, this difference is attribu- 
table to the personal bias, or viewpoint, of the author in 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 19 

question, which is true not only as to the history of liter- 
ature but also as to general history. 

Thus, some call the period from the accession of Henry 
VII (1485) to 1611 Tudor, or Early Modern, English; 
others declare that Modern English should be applied to 
the language and literature which began about the middle 
of the reign of Elizabeth (about 1580) ; others point to 
1477 as the beginning of Modern English. The many 
changes in the English language give grounds for vari- 
ous classifications, but the following is a general one and 
conforms to the greater changes that have taken place : 

Anglo-Saxon (Old English)— 449 to 1066, or 1100. 
Anglo-Saxon and Norman-French and Transition Pe- 
riod— 1066 to 1350. 
English, First Period— 1350 to 1611. 
English, Second Period — 1611 to present. 

SOVEREIGNS OF ENGLAND. 

(General Note — The ascertainment of exact dates is dif- 
ficult, if not impossible, in a number of instances, for many 
reasons. Particularly is this true of the regnal dates, and 
of dates generally, in the earlier periods. Indeed the dif- 
ficulties incident to the exact computation of dates ex- 
tend to a comparatively late period when it is considered 
that the Gregorian Calendar was not adopted in England 
until 1752, and that even in the Middle Ages ecclesiastical 
and local methods were in use beside the Julian Calendar 
and the Christian Era. There are apparently conflicting 
statements, particularly by the older chroniclers, which 
cannot now be reconciled. Added to these difficulties, 
different ideas, usages and laws prevailed at different 
periods in regard to the beginning of a reign.) 



20 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

Anglo-Saxon (Saxon) Kings. 

Note — Dates given for this period cannot always be 
stated with historical accuracy. The authorities, from 
which our knowledge of this period is gleaned, such as 
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Bede and others, do not give 
us the certainty desired as to date of the occurrences 
mentioned and described by them. Nor do they give us 
a full account of the happenings of the times, so that in 
many instances we are obliged to draw our own conclu- 
sions, or inferences, as to the effects of the facts they have 
stated. 

There were, no doubt, periods of time when the strug- 
gles for supremacy may have caused interregnums, or di- 
vided authorities, but the exact effects of which are hard 
to determine. 

Thus, if we regard Ethelbald and Ethelbert as reigning 
together, the one over the one part of the kingdom of 
Ethelwolf, the other over the other part, with equal sove- 
reign power, we have Ethelbald-Ethelbert, 858 to 860; 
Ethelbert, 860 to 866 ; that is, Ethelbert would begin his 
joint reign with Ethelbald in 858, his sole reign in 860. 
If we regard Ethelbald as taking the chief sovereignty 
from his father, Ethelwolf, and Ethelbert as taking a 
part of the kingdom without full regal power, we have 
Ethelbald 858-860. So, it may be noted, Ethelred II fled 
from his kingdom in 1012 or 1013, and some contend this 
was an abdication which continued until he returned, or 
was restored, in 1015. As Sweyn had received the sub- 
mission of most of the nobles and was virtual king, it is 
difficult to decide whether Sweyn should be recognized 
as a king or simply as an usurper. From more modern 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 21 

usage it is thought that he should be regarded in the lat- 
ter light, although he actually set up a rival throne which 
continued for six or eight weeks, from December, 1013, 
until his death in February, 1014. 

There is also the difficulty experienced in the Harold 
and Hardicanute reigns as to the dates to be assigned. 

As for the actual difference in dates given by different 
authorities, it is to be noted that some claim Egbert died 
in the year 836, others that he died in 837, and still 
others assert that his death took place in 839. Edwy's 
death is fixed in the year 957, and also in the year 959. 
Alfred's death is placed either in 899, 900 or 901. 

It will be seen from the above that there is great diffi- 
culty attending the fixing of the dates of this period. 

It must also be remembered that the idea that there 
would be no vacancy in the throne did not grow up until 
a much later period after the Anglo-Saxon times and that 
kingship was considered at first as an elective office and 
that the custom grew to give it to the son of the de- 
ceased monarch. Just when this custom became, in effect, 
a binding rule it is hard to determine, but it must have 
had such force shortly after the time of Egbert. 

Egbert— A. D. 827-836 (or 837 or 839). 

Ethelwolf— A. D. 836-858 (or 857). 
jEthelbald— A. D. 858-860. 
(Ethelbert— A. D. 860-866. 

Ethelred— A. D. 866-871 (or 872). 

Alfred (the Great)— A. D. 871-901 (or 899 or 900). 

Edward I (the Elder)— A. D. 901-925. 

Athelstan— A. D. 925-941 (or 940). 

Edmund— A. D. 941-946 (or 947). 

Edred— A. D. 946-955. 



22 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

Edwy (Edwin)— A. D. 955-959. 
Edgar— A. D. 959-975. 
Edward II (the Martyr)— A. D. 975-978. 
Ethelred (the Unready)— A. D. 978-1016. 
Edmund Ironside— A. D. 1016-1016. 

Danish Kings. 

Canute— A. D. 1016-1035 (or 1036). 

Harold I (Harefoot)— A. D. 1035-1040 (or 1039). 

Hardicanute— A. D. 1040-1042 (or 1041). 

Anglo-Saxon Line (Restored). 

Edward (the Confessor)— A. D. 1042-1066. 
Harold II— A. D. 1066— October 14, 1066. 

SOVEREIGNS OF ENGLAND. 
(From the time of the Norman Conquest.) 

Note — The ascertainment of regnal dates is important 
in English history. Not only is it interesting to know the 
exact time of the beginning of a reign, but it is essential 
in considering the statutes of the realm, which are dated 
by the method of computing their enactment from the 
beginning of a sovereign's rule. It is said that Richard I 
was the first English king to use this method. 

Every regnal year is in part of two calendar years 
unless the accession takes place on the first day of Janu- 
ary (which it has never done as yet) when the regnal and 
calendar years coincide in so far as the regnal year will 
begin and end with the calendar year, or unless the 
regnal year has been cut short by death, or other cause, 
before going from one calendar year into another. Thus 
the first regnal year of Edward VII began on 22 January. 
1901, and ended on 21 January, 1902. 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 23 

Different customs, usages and laws prevailed at dif- 
ferent times for determining the beginning of a reign. 
In the earlier times an ecclesiastical ceremony, a "crown- 
ing" or coronation, was considered necessary to the insti- 
tution of a reign. It was then considered that the office 
of kingship had something of an elective nature and that 
it was necessary to have the formal sanction of barons 
and nobles. 

As was said in the case of Edward II, he succeeded to 
the throne not so much by hereditary right as by the 
unanimous consent of the nobles and great men ("non 
tarn jure luereditario, quam unanimi asseusu procerum 
et magnatum"). This continued from William I to the 
time of Edward III, and during this period the beginning 
of a reign commenced at the time of the coronation. Dur- 
ing this period there was always great unrest from the 
death of a king until the coronation of his successor. 

Then the hereditary idea of kingship began to gather 
form, and from the time of Edward III to the succession 
of Edward VI regnal dates were calculated to begin the 
day after the death of the preceding sovereign. Then 
the doctrine was accepted that the throne goes by descent 
and not by succession, and that there can be no hiatus in 
the sovereignty — no interregnum. This is expressed by 
the legal maxim, "The King never dies' (Rex nunquam 
moritur). So that now the regnal dates are reckoned 
to commence on the same day and at the same time as 
the death of the preceding sovereign. This usage has 
come down from the time of Edward III and was legally 
approved by a decision, or resolution, of the barons and 
judges in passing upon the Statute of 1 Edward VI, 



24 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

Chap. 7, in the first (regnal) year of the reign of Qneen 
Elizabeth. They stated, "The King who is heir, or suc- 
cessor, may write and begin his reign the same day that 
his progenitor, or predecessor, died," 

A good illustration of this doctrine is found in the case 
of the period of the Commonwealth (1649-1660), which is 
sometimes styled an interregnum, although the judges 
under Charles II decided that he was the king during 
this time in fact as well as in law, because as the English 
law recognized no other sovereign power than that of the 
king, any intervening administration was illegal and void. 
From this reasoning it followed that the statutes passed 
during the first year after the restoration of Charles II 
are quoted as acts passed in the twelfth year of his reign. 
While the reasoning that Charles II was, during this 
period, king de jure might be plausible, it is hard to un- 
derstand that he was king de facto. 

It may be well to note, in connection with the fol- 
lowing table, a few facts connected with the chronology 
of certain of the reigns : 

Henry VI was deposed by Edward IV on 4 March, 
1461. In October, 1470, Henry regained possession of the 
throne and resumed the legal title, so from 9 October, 
1470, until April, 1471, he might be considered as again 
being king. After Edward IV repossessed himself of the 
kingdom, he continued to reckon his reign from 4 March, 
1461. 

Lady Jane Grey is not generally mentioned as having 
reigned as queen, since her accession of royal power was 
treated as an usurpation. If, however, it is considered 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 25 

that she is to be regarded as having wielded the royal 
power and entitled to be classified as sovereign, we have- 
Jane— Began 6 July, 1553 ; ended 17 July, 1553. 
James II fled to France in December, 1688, after 
William of Orange had landed at Torbay on 5 November, 
1688. From the time of his flight until 13 February, 1689, 
is sometimes regarded as an interregnum and the Con- 
vention of the estates of the realm declared the throne 
vacant, although James ' departure from the kingdom was 
more a flight than an abdication, as his subsequent efforts 
to regain the throne demonstrate. 

The beginning of the reign of William and Mary is 
fixed by the acceptance of the Declaration of Rights, 
passed by the Convention. This acceptance took place on 
13 February, 1689. 

William III commenced to reign alone upon the death 
of Mary, his wife, with whom he had reigned as William 
and Mary. When they ascended the throne it was agreed 
that they should reign jointly, but that the actual ad- 
ministration of affairs should be vested in William. Mary 
died on 27 December, 1694, and it was determined that 
this date should close his sixth regnal year as William 
and Mary, and that the 28 December should begin his 
seventh regnal year, which was in reality the beginning 
of his sole reign as William III. This calculation shows 
the necessity of remembering the exact date of the begin- 
ning of a reign. The first regnal year of William and 
Mary commenced on 13 February, 1689, and ended on 12 
February, 1690. The sixth regnal year of these sove- 



26 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

reigns began on 13 February, 1694, and, if Mary had 
lived, would not have closed until 12 February, 1695. 

George I (Guelph) belonged to the Hanoverian dynasty 
(or, as some prefer to call it, the Brunswick line) of 
English kings. He was the son of Sophia, Electress of 
Hanover, who was the daughter of Elizabeth, Queen of 
Bohemia. Elizabeth was the daughter of James I, so that 
George I was the great-grandson of the first Stuart king. 

By the Act of Settlement (12 and 13 William III, 
Chap. 2), the throne went to Anne and, in the event of 
her dying without issue surviving her, to the Electress 
Sophia and "the heirs of her body." 

The Electress predeceased Queen Anne, so that upon 
the latter's death George ascended the throne. The 
thrones of England and of Hanover were separated upon 
the death of William IV and the accession of Queen Vic- 
toria to the English throne on 20 June, 1837. 

Edward VII (Wettin) was of the line of Saxe-Coburg 
and Gotha, his father, the prince consort, having been a 
prince of that house. Dynastically, however, Edward VII 
and George V should be considered as belonging to the 
Hanoverian dynasty. 

The beginning of the reign of William the Conqueror 
has occasioned much discussion. Some contend that it 
began on the date of the Battle of Hastings (or Battle 
of Senlac Hill, as it is also called), which took place on 
14 October, 1066. Others believe it should be reckoned, 
according to the ideas then prevailing and that William 
himself, by his formal coronation on 25 December, 1066, 
showed that it was his intention to reign not as con- 
queror but as lawful successor. 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 27 

Norman. 

William I (the Conqueror) — Began 25 December, 1066; 

ended 9 September, 1087. 
William II (Rufus) — Began 26 September, 1087; ended 

2 August, 1100. 
Henry I (Beauclerc) — Began 5 August, 1100; ended 1 

December 1135. 
Stephen (of Blois) — Began 26 December, 1135; ended 

25 October, 1154. 

Plantagenet (or Angevin). 

Henry II (Curt Mantel) — Began 19 December, 1154; 
ended 6 July, 1189. 

Richard I (Coeur de Lion) — Began 3 September, 1189; 
ended 6 April, 1199. 

John (Lackland)— Began 27 May, 1199; ended 19 Octo- 
ber, 1216. 

Henry III (Winchester) — Began 28 October, 1216; 
ended 16 November, 1272. 

Edward I (Longshanks) — Began 20 November, 1272; 
ended 7 July, 1307. 

Edward II (Caernarvon) — Began 8 July, 1307; ended 

20 January, 1327. 

Edward III (Windsor) — Began 25 January, 1327 ; ended 

21 June, 1377. 

Richard II (Bordeaux) — Began 22 June, 1377; ended 
29 September, 1399. 

Lancaster. 

Henry IV (Bolingbroke) — Began 30 September, 1399; 

ended 20 March, 1413. 
Henry V (Monmouth) — Began 21 March, 1413; ended 

31 August, 1422. 
Henry VI (Windsor) — Began 1 September, 1422; 

ended 4 March, 1461. 



28 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

York. 

Edward IV — Began 4 March, 1461; ended 9 April, 

1483. 
Edward .V — Began 9 April, 1483; ended 25 June, 

1483. 
Richard III — Began 26 June, 1483 ; ended 22 August, 

1485. 

Tudor. 

Henry VII (Tudor) — Began 22 August, 1485; ended 

21 April, 1509. 
Henry VIII — Began 22 April, 1509 ; ended 28 January, 

1547. 
Edward VI — Began 28 January, 1547 ; ended 6 July, 

1553. 
Mary — Began 6 July, 1553; ended 24 July, 1554, upon 

her marriage with Philip. 
Philip and Mary — Began 25 July, 1554; ended 17 No- 

vember, 1558, by death of Mary. 
Elizabeth — Began 17 November, 1558 ; ended 24 March, 

1603. 

Stuart. 

James I— Began 24 March, 1603; ended 27 March, 
1625. 

Charles I — Began 27 March, 1625; ended 30 January, 
1649. 

The Commonwealth — Republic established at death of 
Charles I, 30 January, 1649 ; Oliver Cromwell made 
Protector, 16 December, 1653; Oliver Cromwell died 
3 September, 1658, and was succeeded by his son, 
Richard Cromwell, who was proclaimed Protector, 4 
September, 1658; Richard Cromwell abdicated, 25 
May, 1659 ; monarchy restored, 8 May, 1660 ; Charles 
II entered London, 29 May, 1660. 

Charles II— Began 30 January, 1649; ended 6 Feb- 
ruary, 1685. 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 29 

James II — Began 6 February, 1685 ; ended (fled 11 and 
23 December, 1688) 13 February, 1689. 

William and Mary — Began 13 February, 1689 ; ended 
(death of Mary) 27 December, 1694. 

William III — Began 28 December, 1694; ended 8 
March, 1702. 

Anne — Began 8 March, 1702; ended 1 August, 1714. 

Hanover (or Brunswick). 

George I — Began 1 August, 1714; ended 11 June, 1727. 
George II — Began 11 June, 1727 ; ended 25 October. 

1760. 
George III — Began 25 October, 1760 ; ended 29 January, 

1820. 
•George IV — Began 29 January, 1820 ; ended 26 June, 

1830. 
William IV— Began 26 June, 1830; ended 20 June, 

1837. 
Victoria — Began 20 June, 1837 (married to Albert, 

Duke of Saxony and Prince of Saxe-Coburg and 

Gotha, on 10 February, 1840 ; Albert was ordered 

to be styled "Prince-Consort' on 25 June, 1857; 

he died 14 December, 1861) ; ended 22 January, 1901. 
Edward VII — Began 22 January, 1901 ; ended 6 May, 

1910. 
^George V — Began 6 May, 1910 ; ended . 



APPENDIX 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 33 

Money and Monetary System. 

Monetary values are reckoned in Pounds, Shillings and 
Pence, the abbreviations being derived from the Latin 
words libra, solidus and denarius. Thus we have "£' : 
for Pounds, "s" for Shillings, "d" for Pence, from the 
first letter of the Latin words. 

The Penny is divided into Farthings, whose symbol is 
"far." 

Table. 

4 Farthings (far.) = 1 Penny (d). 

12 Pence = 1 Shilling (s). 

20 Shillings = 1 Pound Sterling (£). 

The Pound is often called, colloquially, Sovereign. 

In Great Britain the money is metallic, paper money 
being issued by banks. Gold is the standard, the Pound 
Sterling is the unit. Other coins are also minted in 
silver and bronze. 

In certain large transactions the values are reckoned 
in Guineas, a Guinea being equivalent to 21 Shillings. 

A Crown is a silver coin equivalent to 5 Shillings, 
while a Florin is worth 2 Shillings. 

The following table of former coins and values may 
prove useful to the reader of history, but it is to be 
recollected that the exact values differed at different 
times and their purchasing power differed : 1 Groat = 4d ; 
1 Tester = 6d ; 1 Noble = 6s 8d ; 1 Angel = 10s ; 1 Mark 
= 13s 4d ; 1 Jacobus = 23s ; 1 Carolus = 25s ; 1 Broad = 
3£ 12s. 

India has a currency system of its own, as have Canada 
and certain of the other dominions of the Empire. 



34 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

SOVEREIGNS OF SCOTLAND. 
(From Malcolm III, Canmore, to James VI of Scotland.) 

Malcolm III 1057-1093 

Donald VII 1093-1098 

Duncan II 1094-1095 

Edgar .1098-1107 

Alexander I : 1107-1124 

David 1 1124-1153 

Malcolm IV 1153-1165 

William I (the Lion) 1165-1214 

Alexander II 1214-1249 

Alexander III 1249-1286 

Margaret 1286-1290 

John (Baliol) 1292-1296 

Interregnum 1296-1306 

During which Wallace was regent 1297-1298 

Robert 1 (Bruce) 1306-1329 

David II 1329-1371 

Robert II (Stuart) 1371-1390 

Robert III 1390-1406 

James I 1406-1437 

James II 1437-1460 

James III 1460-1488 

James IV 1488-1513 

James V 1513-1542 

Mary 1542-1567 

James VI, began to reign 24 July, 1567, and ascended the 

English throne 24 March, 1603. 

The Estates of the Realm is a constitutional term ap- 
plied to the three great divisions of governing power — 
the King, Lords and Commons. 

The nobility is divided into the five following ranks, 
the highest being that of Duke: (1) Duke, (2) Marquis, 
(3) Earl, (4) Viscount, (5) Baron. The title of Baronet 
is one of distinction but not of nobility. 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 35 

Magna Charta was the declaration of English liberty 
forced by the barons from King John and signed and 
sealed at Rnnnymede on Jnne 15, 1215. It has been re- 
ferred to as "the keystone of English liberty' and has 
been frequently reaffirmed by succeeding sovereigns. 

Fearing that the terms might be avoided thereafter, or 
that the "Charter' itself might be destroyed or seized 
later by the king, many copies were made at the time 
of its execution, or immediately thereafter, which were 
sent all over the country and ordered to be read twice 
publicly every year. Other copies were sent to castles 
and cathedrals as the safest repositories to be found for 
"the preservation of this valuable document. There are 
four of these "originals" now known to be in existence: 
(1) The British Maiseum Magna Charta No. 1, (2) the 
British Magna Charta No. 2 (both of these being in the 
British Museum) ; (3) the Lincoln Magna Charta, now 
in the archives of Lincoln Cathedral; (4) the Salisbury 
Magna Charta, now in the archives of the Salisbury 
Cathedral. The Lincoln Magna Charta has been en- 
grossed with more care and was chosen by the Commis- 
sioners in preparing the Statutes of the Realm. The 
four copies are alike except in a few trivial particulars. 
Magna Charta is usually divided into a preamble and 
63 chapters, but in the originals there are no such divi- 
sions and indeed no divisions of any kind. These divi- 
sions have been made, no doubt, by later, copyists for 
readier reference. 

The Cinque Ports were originally the five seaports of 
Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich. To these 
were added the towns of Winchelsea and Wye. They 



36 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

were a corporation to themselves, had broad governing 
powers, and, under their lord warden, were supposed to 
protect the southern seacoast, and indeed to furnish the 
navy for the nation. 

The institution of the Cinque Ports existed from 
Anglo-Saxon times and was fully recognized by a charter 
granted to them by Edward I. Their charter rights were 
surrendered to the Crown in 1685, and their privileges 
were practically abolished in the years 1832 and 1835. 

Shires and Counties. In Anglo-Saxon times, England 
was divided into shires which were governed by earldor- 
men under the king in whose dominion the shire was 
located. The practical business of administration was 
left to the shire-reeve. From these words "earldormen' 
and "shire-reeve' we have derived earl and alderman 
(earldormen) and sheriff (shire-reeve). The Normans 
called these divisions counties and changed the name of 
earl to that of count, since restored to earl. But the 
term shire was still used, and is to the present day, al- 
though these local divisions are, as a rule, denominated 
counties in official communications, and we find Henry 
VIII dividing Wales into twelve shires (34 & 35 
Henry VIII, Chap. 26). Local government in the coun- 
ties, or shires, has been greatly changed by the Local 
Government Act of 1888 (51 & 52 Victoria, Chap. 41) as 
to England and Wales. Local customs of Anglo-Saxon 
and feudal times still survive in many places and have 
given rise to the old legal maxim, "Consuetudo manerii 
et loci observanda est" (The custom of the manor and of 
the locality should be regarded). 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 37 

Early Anglo-Saxon Leaders. From time to time during 
the Anglo-Saxon period leaders would appear who, from 
their ability, would be regarded by the kings of the other 
tribes of the Heptarchy as a chief among them. The term 
of "bretwalda" is sometimes used to distinguish them, but 
it is questionable just what power this term implies. The 
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives the list of seven kings, prior 
to Egbert, who "were sovereigns of all the British do- 
minions,' and while they might have been elected as 
generals over all the other kings of the Heptarchy, yet 
they certainly did not possess the power now expressed 
by the word sovereignty: (1) Ella, king of the South- 
Saxons; (2) Ceawlin, king of the West-Saxons; (3) 
Ethelbert, king of Kent ; (4) Redwald, king of the East- 
Angles; (5) Edwin, king of the Northumbrians; (6) Os- 
wald, king of the Northumbrians; (7) Oswy, the brother 
of Oswald. 

Tribes inhabiting England and Wales at the time of the 
Roman Invasion. The number and territory of these 
tribes cannot be exactly ascertained, but the following 
table may give an idea of the condition of the island at 
that time : 

I. Atrebatii — Berkshire. 

II. Belgae — Somerset, Wiltshire, Isle of Wight, 
Hants. 

III. Brigantes — Yorkshire, Lancashire, Westmoreland, 

Cumberland and Durham. 

IV. Cantii— Kent. 

V. Catyeuchlani — Bedfordshire, Bucks and Hertford- 
shire. 
VI. Coritani — Northamptonshire, Leicester, Rutland, 
Lincoln, Nottingham and Derby. 



3 8 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

VII. Cornabii and Damnonii — Cornwall and Devon- 
shire. 
VIII. Cornavii — Warwick, Cheshire, Shropshire, Staf- 
ford and Worcestershire. 
IX. Dimetae — Caermarthen, Pembroke and Cardigan- 

• shire. 
X. Dobuni — Gloucester and Oxfordshire. 
XI. Durotriges — Dorsetshire. 

XII. Iceni — Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge and Hunting- 
donshire. 

XIII. Ordovices — North Wales. 

XIV. Otaduni — Northumberland. 

XV. Regni — Surrey, Sussex and South Hants. 
XVI. Silures — South Wales. 
XVII. Trinobantes — Middlesex and Essex. 

The Romans divided Great Britain into the following- 
named divisions or provinces : 

I. Britannia Prima, being the country south of the 

Thames and Severn. 
II. Britannia Secunda, or the portion of the country 
now known as Wales. 

III. Flavia Caesariensis, embracing the central counties 

from the Dee on the north to the Thames on the 
south, and from the eastern boundary of Britan- 
nia Secunda to the Wash and North Sea. 

IV. Maxima Caesariensis, from the Dee on the south to 

the wall of Adrian (which extended between the 
mouth of the River Tyne to the Solway) on the 
north. 
V. Valentia, from the wall of Adrian on the south to 
the rampart of Agricola (which extended from 
the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde and was 
afterward restored and called the Wall of An- 
tonine, or Graham's Dyke) on the north. 
VI. Caledonia, that part of Britain north of the ram- 
part of Agricola. 



INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 39 

The Heptarchy. The number of the Anglo-Saxon king- 
doms varied from time to time and it has been said that 
at no time were there precisely seven independent king- 
doms, as the name would indicate. 

The Anglo-Saxon period, especially from 449 to 827, is 
so confused in the sparse annals and chronicles of the 
time that it is impossible to speak with historical cer- 
tainty of the exact relations of these principalities, as 
well as give exact dates. There are, however, certain 
facts which we do know from the accounts of this time, 
and it is from these that we can state that there were 
seven of these kingdoms, founded by the Jutes, the 
Angles and the Saxons, which stood out in a prominent 
way; and, from time to time, one of them would appear 
to be on the verge of assuming the sovereignty of the 
others. This did not occur until the time of Egbert, as 
we have heretofore seen, although there is some dis- 
pute as to whether Egbert should be called the first 
Anglo-Saxon, or English, king; that is, whether he pos- 
sessed that power which made him a sovereign over all 
of Angla-land. The following are the kingdoms of the 
so-called Heptarchy, together with the approximate time 
of their several foundations and the names of their first 
leaders, or kings : 

(Hengist and Horsa land at Ebbsfleet, Thanet, in 
449 A. D.) 

I. Kent, founded by the Jutes under Hengist, 457 

A. D. 
II. South Saxons, or Sussex (comprising Sussex and 
Surrey), founded by the Saxons under Ella, 
491 A. D. 



40 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH HISTORY 

III. West Saxons, or Wessex (comprising the country 

west of Sussex and south of the Thames, except 
Cornwall), founded by the Saxons under Cerdic, 
519 A. D. 

IV. East Saxons, or Essex (comprising Essex and Mid- 

dlesex) , founded by the Saxons under Ercenwin, 
527 A. D. This division was between Kent and 
Sussex on the south and Mercia and East Anglia 
on the north. 
V. Northumbria, the land north of the Humber (lying 
between Mercia on the south and the Firth of 
Forth on the north), founded by the Angles un- 
der Ida, 547 A. D. This kingdom was divided 
at first into the two states of Bernicia and Deira 
which began to unite in 588 A. D. 
VI. East Anglia (comprising Norfolk [North-Folk], 
Suffolk [South-Folk] and Cambridge), founded 
by the Angles under Uffa, 575 A. D. 
VII. Mercia (composed of what are now the midland 
counties), founded by the Angles under Cridda, 
582 A. D. 

The three principal kingdoms which contended for 
supremacy were Northumbria, Mercia and the West 
Saxons. 



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